Scripture quotations on this page are from the World English Bible (public domain), shown in quotation marks; all commentary is written by Scripture Trove. Source: Ecclesiastes 7 · Commentary
Ecclesiastes chapter 7 is a turning point in the book's structure, shifting from the repeated diagnosis of "vanity" (wealth, pleasure, injustice) in the first 6 chapters to an examination of the limits of wisdom itself. The style of this chapter also changes; while the first 6 chapters were philosophical monologues, the first half of this chapter (7:1-12) becomes a collection of proverbial sayings, opening with ten "better than" comparative proverbs. This change in style is not accidental; the Preacher uses the standard form of wisdom literature (proverbial style), but he uses these proverbs to lead to a meditation on death: "the day of death is better than the day of birth." The latter half (7:15-29) directly confronts the limits of wisdom: "For there is no one righteous on earth who does good and doesn’t sin" (7:20). The entire chapter is "the honest diagnosis of wisdom itself by a wise person."
Ecclesiastes Part Seven (7:1-29) · The Limits of Wisdom
Chapter's Position: This chapter follows 6:10-12, "who knows what is good for a person," where the Preacher has just admitted the limited human understanding of "what is good." Chapter 7 is a response to this perplexity; he lists various "goods" that all wise people agree on (reputation, end, sorrow), then exposes the truth of these "goods" in the face of death, and finally admits that even a wise person cannot find a truly "righteous person." This chapter sets the stage for the pessimistic observation in chapters 8-9 that "the righteous and the wicked alike suffer the same fate."
Ten "Better Than" Proverbs (7:1-12) Reputation is better than perfume, the day of death is better than the day of birth, sorrow is better than laughter, wisdom is better than an inheritance—the counter-intuitive wisdom of the wise.
God's Dual Arrangement: Prosperity and Adversity (7:13-14) God's work cannot be changed; be joyful in the day of prosperity, and consider in the day of adversity.
Limits of Wisdom: Do Not Be Overly Righteous or Wicked (7:15-22) Seeing the righteous die young and the wicked live long; warning against the extremes of self-righteous asceticism and moral license.
One Righteous Person Hard to Find Among a Thousand (7:23-29) The lament of the wise person: God made humanity upright, but they have sought out many schemes.
The arc of the entire chapter moves from counter-intuitive proverbial wisdom → meditation on death → limits of wisdom → diagnosis of human depravity. The ten "better than" sayings at the beginning seem like standard wisdom proverbs, but each subtly points to death and vanity; the Preacher uses the proverbial form to speak anti-proverbial words. The middle section, 7:15-18, "Do not be overly righteous," is the most tension-filled passage in the entire book. This is not a license for moral license, but a warning against Pharisaic self-righteousness, accompanied by the mirror admonition, "Do not be overly wicked." The diagnosis in the final section, 7:29, "God made humanity upright, but they have sought out many schemes," is the wisdom literature version of human depravity in Genesis 3, and the Old Testament root of Romans 3:10-12 in the New Testament.
Wise people have not been strangers to darkness; they have seen more of it than anyone. Today, the Preacher tells you with ten counter-intuitive proverbs: death is the mirror that reveals life. If a person has never sat in a house of mourning, never contemplated their own death, never learned reverence in a day of adversity, all their "happiness" is superficial. But the wise person also admits one thing: even with wisdom, a perfectly righteous person cannot be found. The entire Old Testament's diagnosis of human nature converges in this verse: "For there is no one righteous on earth who does good and doesn’t sin" (7:20). This is the root that Paul directly uses in Romans 3:10. The only true hope amidst vanity is not to try harder to be righteous, but to admit that one is not righteous and turn to the truly Righteous One.
"A good name is better than fine perfume, and the day of death better than the day of birth." (7:1), the counter-intuitive wisdom of the wise. A good name is accumulated over a lifetime and remains after death; perfume is a temporary fragrance that quickly dissipates. The day of death is better than the day of birth because the day of death is the revelation of the end.
"Sorrow is better than laughter, for by the sadness of the face the heart is made good." (7:3), the Preacher's most counter-intuitive proverb. Laughter can numb the soul; sorrow awakens the soul.
"always fear God." (7:18), the ethical destination of this chapter. Between the extremes of "being righteous" and "being wicked," fearing God is true wisdom.
"For there is no one righteous on earth who does good and doesn’t sin." (7:20), directly used by Paul in Romans 3:10-12. The core diagnosis of human depravity in the entire Bible.
"God made humanity upright, but they have sought out many schemes." (7:29), the wisdom literature version of human depravity. Echoes Genesis 3 and connects with Romans 1:21.
Ecclesiastes chapter 7 is the chapter the Chinese church most needs to hear, because it exposes several of our deepest misconceptions.
The first misconception is the death taboo. Our culture avoids the word "death," shuns funerals, and prevents children from seeing dead people, as if avoidance can make death not come. Ecclesiastes 7:1-4 tells you today: daring to contemplate death is the beginning of wisdom. I suggest you do one thing this month: attend a memorial service, or walk through a funeral home, or write your own eulogy. Only when death enters your field of vision can you truly live.
The second misconception is positive, sunny theology. We think that believing in Jesus means being joyful at all times, never sorrowful, and always "victorious." Ecclesiastes 7:3 exposes this theology: sorrow is better than laughter. Christ himself was a "man of sorrows," and those who follow Christ cannot have an easier life than Christ. If you are sorrowful today, do not rush to suppress it. Ask God what lesson He wants you to learn today to "make your heart better."
The third misconception is self-righteous spirituality. We easily accumulate external rules in the church: no drinking, no smoking, no perms, no hair dyeing, no movies, no listening to pop music, and then use these lists to prove that we are more spiritual than others. Ecclesiastes 7:16 tells you today: "Do not be overly righteous." This is not telling you to go drink, but to admit that you are not saved by these things. If you secretly look down on others in the church based on "list completion," you are already within the scope of the warning in 7:16.
But please note, the Preacher did not slide to the other extreme; 7:17 immediately follows with "Do not be overly wicked." This is a very important mirror admonition, opposing both self-righteous asceticism and moral license. Today, the Chinese church indeed has a Pharisaical tendency of "justification by law," but the outside world has a more intense "moral relativism." Ecclesiastes tells you today: neither extreme is the way; fearing God is the way.
The fourth, and deepest, is you are not righteous. 7:20 states clearly: "For there is no one righteous on earth who does good and does not sin." Paul directly moved this verse to the New Testament in Romans 3:10-12, compiling it into "There is no one righteous, no, not one." This is the root of the gospel; if anyone could do good perfectly, he would not need a Savior. But no one can, including the most devout pastor, the most perfect mother, the most pious saint. This truth is not meant to strike you down, but to make you look up to the true righteous one, Jesus.
The last sentence, 7:29, is the deepest hope of the entire chapter: "God made mankind upright, but they have sought out many schemes." This verse contains two truths:
First, your dignity: you were created upright, in God's image, and good. You are not "essentially garbage"; this is an overstatement of some pessimistic theologies. Second, your need: but you have made yourself crooked. You need a Savior to make you straight again.
2 Corinthians 5:17 is the gospel response to 7:29: "Therefore if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation." Christ makes the crooked straight again; this is redemption.
After reading Ecclesiastes chapter 7, I hope you do one thing tonight before bed: be quiet for five minutes and say three sentences to God:
This is where Ecclesiastes chapter 7 wants to lead you today: not to try harder to be righteous, but to admit that you are not righteous, and then turn to the true righteous one.
7:1-2 "The day of death is better than the day of one's birth. It is better to go to the house of mourning than to go to the house of feasting." How have you avoided death in the past? How does Ecclesiastes invite you to face death anew today?
7:16-18 "Do not be overly righteous, neither be overly wicked, for he who fears God will come out of both." Which extreme do you lean towards today? Legalistic self-righteousness, or moral relativism's license? How is fearing God manifested in your life?
7:20, 7:29 "For there is no one righteous on earth who does good and does not sin; God made mankind upright, but they have sought out many schemes." Are you still "trying to be perfectly righteous" today? How do these two verses point to your need for Christ the Savior?
Section Positioning: This is the section of Ecclesiastes most similar to Proverbs. Ten "X is better than Y" maxims (Hebrew tov A min B, A is better than B) are compiled into a set of counter-intuitive wisdom sayings. However, unlike typical Proverbs, these "better than" sayings do not teach how to become rich or live long, but rather contemplate death, sorrow, and limitations. The Preacher uses the proverb form to speak anti-proverbial words.
7:1 "A good name is better than fine perfume; and the day of death better than the day of one’s birth."
Ecclesiastes 7:1（World English Bible）
"Name" (shem) and "perfume" (shemen) form a pun and rhyme in Hebrew, shem tov mishemen tov (a good name is better than good oil). This is a double art of Hebrew poetic language: rhyme and contrast. Perfume was a luxury item in ancient times, used to anoint guests, kings, and bridegrooms, symbolizing joy and honor (Psalm 23:5; Song of Solomon 1:3). But the Preacher says: however much perfume you use in your life will evaporate; only your name will remain.
The latter half of the verse is even more counter-intuitive: "the day of death better than the day of birth." A birthday is a beginning, hope, and the unknown; a death day is an end, a revelation, and a judgment. The Preacher, from the perspective of a wise person, says: a person on their birthday does not know what they will become; a person on their death day has already revealed who they are. Whether a person is truly wise, truly loving, and truly reverent toward God is fully revealed only on the day of death. This is the core stance of Ecclesiastes: pay attention to the end.
Application: The modern Chinese cultural taboo against death, avoiding the word "death," shunning funerals, and evading end-of-life conversations, is actually anti-wisdom. Ecclesiastes tells you today: daring to contemplate your own death is the beginning of wisdom. Everyone who wants to live clearly should often visit funeral homes, often attend memorial services, and often think, "If tonight were my death day, what would be the total balance of my life?"
7:2 "It is better to go to the house of mourning than to go to the house of feasting: for that is the end of all men, and the living should take this to heart."
Ecclesiastes 7:2（World English Bible）
A more specific application: it is better to go to the house of mourning than to go to the house of feasting. This is completely contrary to modern societal preferences; people like to attend banquets and avoid funerals. But the Preacher says: a funeral shows you the truth, a banquet makes you forget the truth.
"That is the end of all humanity" (sof kol-ha'adam, the end of all people) is a very democratic truth. Whether kings, rich people, wise people, or strong people, all go to the same place (see 9:2-3 for further elaboration). A funeral makes you sit before the dead and contemplate your own common destination, a lesson that a banquet cannot provide.
"And the living will lay it to heart," v'hachai yitten el-libbo (the living will put this into their heart). The Hebrew uses "put into the heart," libbo is "his heart," meaning to let this truth sink deep into the soul. A discerning person goes to a funeral not to watch, but to let the truth of death settle in their heart. The New Testament Hebrews 9:27, "Inasmuch as it is appointed for men to die once, and after this, judgment," expresses the same stance.
7:3 "Sorrow is better than laughter; for by the sadness of the face the heart is made good."
Ecclesiastes 7:3（World English Bible）
The Preacher's most counter-intuitive maxim. The contrast between "sorrow" (ka'as, grief, anger) and "laughter" (sechok, laughter, mockery). The Hebrew sechok is not just "joyful laughter," but also implies frivolous laughter, superficial laughter, and mocking laughter.
The Preacher's argument: "by the sadness of the countenance the heart is made better," ki b'ro'a panim yitav lev (the difficulty on the face makes the heart good). The Hebrew yitav lev is not "makes the heart happy," but "makes the heart better," yatav means "good, improve." It means: suffering refines the soul for the better.
This is very deep wisdom. Chinese churches can easily fall into "positive and sunny theology," believing that believing in Jesus means being joyful at all times and never sorrowful. But Ecclesiastes tells you today: sorrow is not a spiritual failure; it can be a spiritual gift. The New Testament Romans 5:3-5, "suffering produces endurance, and endurance, proven character; and proven character, hope," follows the same logic. Christ himself was "a man of suffering, and acquainted with grief" (Isaiah 53:3); Christians cannot be more joyful than Christ.
Application: If you are experiencing sorrow, don't rush to suppress it. Ask God what "making the heart better" lesson He wants to do in your heart today.
7:4 "The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning; but the heart of fools is in the house of mirth."
Ecclesiastes 7:4（World English Bible）
Continuing the contrast from 7:2, this is a more direct diagnosis. Where is the heart of the wise (lev chakhamim)? In the house of mourning. Where is the heart of fools (lev kesilim)? In the house of mirth. This does not mean that wise people cannot attend banquets, but that the deep thoughts of the wise often dwell on the truth of death, so they live soberly. Fools, on the other hand, are anesthetized by feasting; they live in "eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die," avoiding the end.
The New Testament Jesus also held this position; he attended the wedding at Cana (John 2) and often went to the temple in Jerusalem to weep (Luke 19:41-44). Jesus' heart neither rejected joy nor avoided death.
7:5 "It is better to hear the rebuke of the wise, than for a man to hear the song of fools."
Ecclesiastes 7:5（World English Bible）
A further contrast: although the words of the wise may be unpleasant like a rebuke, they are more beneficial than the sweet songs of fools. The Hebrew gear chakham (rebuke of the wise) versus shir kesilim (song of fools) shows a contrast between teaching and admonition on one side, and entertainment and anesthesia on the other.
Application: Modern Chinese people are most easily overwhelmed by two kinds of voices: one is the sweet rhetoric of influencers/KOLs ("positive, successful, sunny"), and the other is the voice of pastors who dare to rebuke. Ecclesiastes tells you today: only those willing to listen to rebuke are wise. In the church, being willing to hear pastors speak difficult truths, speak of sin, death, and judgment, rather than just feel-good words, is a mark of wisdom.
7:6 "For as the crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool. This also is vanity."
Ecclesiastes 7:6（World English Bible）
A wonderful image: thorns burning under a pot. The Hebrew כְּקוֹל הַסִּירִים תַּחַת הַסִּיר (ke'qol hassirim tachat hassir, the sound of thorns under the pot), sirim (thorns) and sir (pot) form a rhyming pun. This is an everyday scene in Palestine: thorns are fuel for the poor to cook with, they crackle quickly, make a loud noise, provide short-lived heat, and produce much ash.
The laughter of fools is like this fire: it crackles loudly, but vanishes in an instant, with no real warmth. The Preacher uses hevel (vanity) for the first time in this chapter, categorizing laughter as vanity.
7:7 "Surely extortion makes the wise man foolish; and a bribe destroys the understanding."
Ecclesiastes 7:7（World English Bible）
Turning to social reality, even wise people can be corrupted. "Extortion" (oshek, oppression, excessive taxation) and "bribe" (mattanah, gift, bribe) are two things most likely to lead wise people astray.
The Preacher honestly admits: wisdom is not immune. No matter how clever a person is, once greed is aroused, once they accept a bribe, their wisdom is corrupted. Solomon himself deviating from God in his later years (1 Kings 11) is the most direct example; he was "wiser than all men," but he was led astray by women and silver and gold.
Application: Beware of the self-deception, "I am wise, so I am safe." No wise person can naturally stand firm in the face of greed; you must rely on the fear of God to guard yourself. The New Testament 1 Timothy 6:9-10, "For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil," is a continuation of the Preacher's thought.
7:8 "Better is the end of a thing than its beginning. The patient in spirit is better than the proud in spirit."
Ecclesiastes 7:8（World English Bible）
Pay attention to the end, tov acharit davar mereshito (the end of a matter is better than its beginning). This is two expressions of the same wisdom as 7:1, "the day of death better than the day of birth"; the true good or bad of a matter is only clear at its conclusion.
The joy of a new marriage is nothing; the steadfastness of a golden anniversary is the true testimony. The excitement of getting into university is nothing; the total balance of life 20 years after graduation is true wisdom. The passion of an evangelistic meeting is nothing; a lifetime of faithfulness is true faith.
The latter half of the verse, "the patient in spirit is better than the proud in spirit," further explains that those who can reach the end are patient people, not proud people. Pride makes one start dazzlingly but fail to reach the end; patience makes one start simply but run the whole course. This is the same posture as Hebrews 12:1-2 in the New Testament, "let us run with perseverance the race that is set before us."
7:9 "Don’t be hasty in your spirit to be angry, for anger rests in the bosom of fools."
Ecclesiastes 7:9（World English Bible）
Hasty in spirit to be angry (lo tevahel beruhakha likh'os, do not let your spirit be hasty to be angry). A wise person can control anger, while a fool is controlled by anger. "Anger rests in the bosom of fools," the Hebrew bekheq kesilim yanu'akh (rests in the bosom of fools), personifies anger as if it lives in the fool's chest.
James 1:19-20 in the New Testament, "be quick to hear, slow to speak, and slow to anger," is a direct extension of this verse.
7:10 "Don’t say, “Why were the former days better than these?” For you do not ask wisely about this."
Ecclesiastes 7:10（World English Bible）
This opposes nostalgia for "the good old days." A wise person does not indulge in nostalgia like "how good things were in the old days," which is usually an escape from the present. Every era has its struggles; ancient people were no more pious than modern people; the modern era is no more depraved than ancient times. The Preacher has already said in 1:9, "there is no new thing under the sun," and here he reminds us again: do not romanticize the past, nor demonize the present.
This is a very interesting application. The argument in modern Chinese churches that "the older generation of Christians were more spiritual, and modern Christians are failing" is debunked by Ecclesiastes today as not being from wisdom. Every era has a faithful remnant, and every era has many compromising believers. The key is not which era, but how each person reveres God in their own era.
7:11-12 "Wisdom is as good as an inheritance. Yes, it is more excellent for those who see the sun. For wisdom is a defense, even as money is a defense; but the excellency of knowledge is that wisdom preserves the life of him who has it."
Ecclesiastes 7:11-12（World English Bible）
Finally, we come to a positive affirmation of wisdom. Both wisdom and inheritance are good, but wisdom is better because:
The last phrase of 7:12 in Hebrew, hokhmah techayyeh ve'aleha (wisdom makes her possessor live), is a strong statement. True wisdom makes a person truly live. This is in the same vein as Proverbs 3:18, "She is a tree of life."
But please note the tension: the Preacher just said in 1:18, "For in much wisdom is much grief," and is about to say in 7:23-24, "Wisdom is far off, and exceeding deep; who can find it out?" Ecclesiastes' attitude towards wisdom is dialectical: wisdom is good, but it has limits.
Section Positioning: Transition from proverbial style to first-person reflection. These two verses reveal the foundation of the Preacher's wisdom, acknowledging God's sovereignty. All subsequent discussions in the chapter about "doing righteousness" and "doing evil" are built upon these two verses.
7:13 "Consider the work of God, for who can make that straight, which he has made crooked?"
Ecclesiastes 7:13（World English Bible）
"Consider the work of God" (re'eh et-ma'aseh ha'Elohim, see what God has done) is the basic posture of a wise person. It is not asking "what can I do" first, but first seeing "what God is doing."
"For who can make that straight, which he has made crooked?" responds to 1:15, "That which is crooked can't be made straight." Earlier, 1:15 spoke of human limitations, that humans cannot straighten what is crooked; here, 7:13 further states that this crookedness is ordained by God. Why can't humans straighten it? Because God ordained it to be so.
This does not mean God creates evil, but that in His sovereignty, God allows certain "crookedness" to exist—some people have short lives, some are poor, some suffer calamities. These are all within God's mystery. The Preacher does not explain "why"; he only acknowledges that humans have no right to dispute (cf. Yahweh's whirlwind speech in Job 38-41).
Application: Chinese churches often fall into the cyclical confusion of "why did God let X happen?" Ecclesiastes tells you today: some "crookedness" you don't need to try to straighten. What you need to do is consider the work of God, acknowledge God's sovereignty, and then live reverently within this "crookedness."
7:14 "In the day of prosperity be joyful, and in the day of adversity consider; yes, God has made the one side by side with the other, to the end that man should not find out anything after him."
Ecclesiastes 7:14（World English Bible）
Dual arrangement: be joyful in the day of prosperity, and consider in the day of adversity. In Hebrew, byom tovah heyeh batov (in the day of good, be in good) and uvyom ra'ah re'eh (in the day of evil, see). The two verbs rhyme: heyeh (you shall be) and re'eh (you shall see).
In days of prosperity, do not feign hardship; openly receive God's grace. In days of adversity, do not avoid; consider God's lessons. Both are God's arrangements.
"God has made the one side by side with the other" (et-zeh le'ummat-zeh asah ha'Elohim, God made this opposite that). God pairs prosperity and adversity for people, with the purpose of making people unable to discern the future. If there were only prosperity, people would become complacent; if there were only adversity, people would despair. The pairing of both makes people live in unpredictable circumstances, which itself is God's education.
Romans 5:3-5 in the New Testament, "Not only so, but we also rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces perseverance; and perseverance, character; and character, hope," is the New Testament echo of Ecclesiastes 7:14. The Christian posture towards adversity is not avoidance, but consideration, allowing God's lessons to enter the soul in adversity.
Application: Which kind of day are you in today? People in days of prosperity, don't forget to be thankful, and don't use joy as proof that "I deserve it." People in days of adversity, don't forget to consider, and don't miss the lesson God wants to shape you with today in your weeping.
Section Focus: This is the most tension-filled passage in this chapter. The Preacher directly confronts the deepest limits of wisdom, having personally witnessed the righteous dying young and the wicked living long. He then gives a surprising counsel: "Do not be overly righteous" + "Do not be overly wicked." This passage must be handled carefully; it does not mean "it is permissible to do evil," but rather warns against the extremes of Pharisaic self-righteousness and moral license, ultimately returning to "fearing God."
7:15 "All this I have seen in my days of vanity: there is a righteous man who perishes in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man who lives long in his evildoing."
Ecclesiastes 7:15（World English Bible）
The Preacher honestly admits the anti-justice reality he has personally witnessed: the righteous dying young, and the wicked living long.
This is the most difficult topic to handle in Hebrew wisdom literature. Deuteronomic retribution theology states: "Do good and be blessed, do evil and be punished" (Deuteronomy 28); Proverbs is largely similar. But Ecclesiastes, along with Job, punctures this simplification, showing that in reality, retribution does not always operate this way.
"All this I have seen in my days of vanity" (ra'iti bimey hevli, I have seen in my hevel days). Hevli is "my vanity," the possessive form of hevel. He is not imagining things in his study; he has seen them with his own eyes in his limited life. This is an experiential, painful observation.
Note the tension: This does not mean the Preacher has abandoned God's justice; he will return to "God will bring every deed into judgment" (12:14) later. But he honestly admits that under the sun, in this life, retribution is not always evident. This honesty is a mark of spiritual maturity, not a whitewashing of reality with theological slogans, but an acknowledgment of reality followed by continued reverence.
7:16 "Don’t be overly righteous, neither make yourself overly wise. Why should you destroy yourself?"
Ecclesiastes 7:16（World English Bible）
This is the most difficult verse. "Don’t be overly righteous" (al-tehi tsaddiq harbeh, do not be too righteous) + "neither make yourself over wise" (ve'al-tit'hakkam yoter, do not make yourself too wise).
This verse is often misinterpreted as "it is permissible to do evil in moderation," which is absolutely a wrong interpretation. To understand it correctly, one must look at the Hebrew verb tense: "make yourself over wise" is in the hithpael form (reflexive, self-directed), meaning "to make oneself out to be wise." So this verse warns against hypocrisy / Pharisaic self-righteousness.
The "overly righteous" that the Preacher warns against is:
"Destroy yourself" (tishshomem, make oneself desolate). Self-righteousness is not just an ethical failure; it also corrupts one's soul. The most devout Pharisees were the furthest from God; this is the paradox Jesus repeatedly pointed out.
Mirror Admonition (next verse), but please note that 7:16 is not isolated; it forms a mirror admonition with 7:17. Any interpretation that only cites 7:16 without 7:17 is partial.
7:17 "Don’t be too wicked, neither be foolish. Why should you die before your time?"
Ecclesiastes 7:17（World English Bible）
Mirror Admonition, "Don’t be overly wicked." This verse refutes anyone who takes 7:16 as a license for moral license; the Preacher equally warns against unrestrained evil.
The Hebrew uses the same structure (al-tirsha harbeh, do not be too wicked); the two verses are like two sides of a mirror.
Key point: The Preacher is not saying "moderate evil is permissible"; he is saying that both extremes will cause you to die prematurely. "Die before your time" (lammah tamut belo itekha, why die before your time). Self-righteous asceticism causes the soul to wither and die early; unrestrained indulgence causes the body to decay and die early. Both are fast tracks to death.
This is very deep wisdom: those who fear God do not rely on accumulating laws for righteousness, nor do they allow themselves to fall into indulgence. This corresponds to Paul's two-sided teaching in the New Testament: on one hand, warning against legalism (Galatians 3-5), and on the other, warning against wanton indulgence (Romans 6, Galatians 5:13-21). The tension of the gospel lies in between: not law, not indulgence, but holiness in grace.
7:18 "It is good that you should take hold of this. Yes, also from that don’t withdraw your hand; for he who fears God will come out of them all."
Ecclesiastes 7:18（World English Bible）
The key destination of the entire chapter: fearing God. "This" + "that" refers to the two-sided warning in 7:16-17: neither self-righteous asceticism nor unrestrained indulgence. The one who fears God (yere Elohim) holds onto both aspects of wisdom simultaneously.
The Hebrew yetse et-kullam (come out of all these) means that the one who fears God can escape both of these traps unscathed. This means: fear is the true protection. Neither legalism nor permissiveness is the way out; fear is.
Application: Which extreme do you lean towards today?
If you are strictly legalistic, feeling more spiritual than others, looking down on "weak" brothers and sisters, and accumulating external rules, Ecclesiastes 7:16 tells you, "Don’t be overly righteous." If you are casually permissive, thinking "it's all grace anyway," not being vigilant about sin, and "trying anything," Ecclesiastes 7:17 tells you, "Don’t be overly wicked." Neither is the way; fearing God is the way (7:18).
7:19 "Wisdom is a strength to the wise man more than ten rulers who are in a city."
Ecclesiastes 7:19（World English Bible）
Continuing to affirm the value of wisdom, wisdom is greater than power. A wise person is stronger than ten people in positions of power. This echoes the later story in 9:13-18 about "a poor wise man saving a city," reminding readers repeatedly that true power comes from wisdom, not from status.
But note the tension: the Preacher acknowledges the power of wisdom (7:19) while also acknowledging its limits (7:23-24). This dialectic is healthy.
7:20 "Surely there is not a righteous man on earth, who does good and doesn’t sin."
Ecclesiastes 7:20（World English Bible）
The heaviest verse in the entire chapter, and the Old Testament root directly used by Paul in Romans 3:10-12.
Hebrew: ki adam ein tsaddiq ba'arets asher ya'aseh-tov velo yecheta (for there is no righteous man on earth who does good and does not sin). This is a declaration of total human depravity.
Paul in Romans 3:10-12 quotes: "as it is written, 'There is no one righteous, no, not one. There is no one who understands. There is no one who seeks after God. They have all turned aside. They have together become unprofitable. There is no one who does good, no, not one.'" This directly uses Ecclesiastes 7:20, Psalms 14, 53 + Isaiah 59, and other Old Testament diagnoses of human nature, compiling them into the New Testament doctrine of human sin.
This verse is an indispensable foundation of the gospel. If anyone could "do good and not sin," they would not need a Savior. But the Preacher, in BCE, already diagnosed: there is not one. This prepares the way for the New Testament's "Christ's atonement"; since there is no righteous person, the only hope is for a truly righteous person to become righteousness for us (2 Corinthians 5:21).
Application: If you are still "trying to be a perfectly righteous person" today, Ecclesiastes 7:20 tells you to stop. You are not righteous, and never will be; what you can do is admit this and turn to the truly righteous Jesus Christ.
7:21-22 "Also don’t take heed to all words that are spoken, lest you hear your servant curse you; for often your own heart knows that you yourself have likewise cursed others."
Ecclesiastes 7:21-22（World English Bible）
Specific application: don't pay too much attention to what others say about you, because you yourself have said such things about others.
This is the wisdom of self-knowledge. We tend to be lenient with ourselves and harsh with others; we get angry when others speak ill of us, but easily forget how many bad things we ourselves have said about others. The Preacher exposes this double standard in one sentence.
Application: The next time someone speaks ill of you, first consider that you have also spoken ill of others. Acknowledging that you are also a sinner makes you more compassionate towards the harm done by others. This is in the same spirit as Jesus' "do not judge" in Matthew 7:1-5.
Section Positioning: This is the conclusion of the chapter, where the Preacher admits that even with his personal examination, he cannot find true wisdom or a righteous person. The last verse, 7:29, is Ecclesiastes' core diagnosis of human depravity: God made humanity upright, but they have sought out many schemes.
7:23-24 "All this I have proved in wisdom. I said, “I will be wise”; but it was far from me. That which is, is far off and exceedingly deep. Who can find it out?"
Ecclesiastes 7:23-24（World English Bible）
The Preacher admits that his own pursuit of wisdom encountered a wall. He says, "I will be wise," but wisdom "was far from me" (hi rechokah mimmenni, she was far from me).
The Hebrew uses hi (she); wisdom is often personified as female in wisdom literature (e.g., Proverbs 8). Here, the Preacher says "she was far from me," indicating he personally pursued her, tried to grasp her, but could not.
"That which is, is far off and exceedingly deep. Who can find it out?" He then admits that human understanding of all things has a fundamental limit. This is the same lament as Job 28, "Where then does wisdom come from?"
This is the humility of the wise person; even a Solomon-like sage admits that he cannot fathom the truth of all things. This contrasts with modern positivism's "we can know everything"; the wise person acknowledges the existence of mystery.
7:25 "I turned around, and my heart sought to know and to search out, and to seek wisdom and the scheme of things, and to know that wickedness is stupidity, and that foolishness is madness."
Ecclesiastes 7:25（World English Bible）
The Preacher changes his posture. Since the pursuit of wisdom hit a wall, he shifts direction: studying wickedness and foolishness.
The Hebrew intentionally contrasts resha kesel (wickedness and folly) and kesilut holelot (foolishness and madness). A wise person not only studies wisdom but also anti-wisdom, because anti-wisdom reveals another side of human nature. This is the same posture as 1:17, "I applied my heart to know wisdom, and to know madness and folly."
7:26 "I find more bitter than death the woman whose heart is snares and traps, whose hands are chains. Whoever pleases God shall escape from her; but the sinner will be ensnared by her."
Ecclesiastes 7:26（World English Bible）
Turning to wisdom concerning marriage and sexuality, warning against the adulteress, the woman who is a snare. This parallels the warnings in Proverbs 5-7; the Solomon-like sage repeatedly warns of this danger.
"Whose heart is traps and snares, whose hands are chains" refers not to physical temptation, but to emotional entanglement and behavioral control. A relationship that traps someone inescapably, even if outwardly beautiful, is death.
"More bitter than death" (mar mimmavet, more bitter than death) is strong language. Someone caught in an emotional snare might feel "I'd rather be dead." This is the Preacher's clinical observation; he himself (if he is Solomon) had 700 wives and 300 concubines (1 Kings 11:3), and he knew the truth of such snares.
"Whoever pleases God shall escape from her" – fearing God is the only way to escape this snare. This does not mean "believing in Jesus makes you immune," but that those who fear God have clear eyes and can withdraw from temptation in its early stages. The New Testament's 1 Corinthians 6:18, "Flee from sexual immorality," is the same posture: flee, do not "try to resist."
Application: Modern Chinese people may not face the temptation of 700 wives, but it could be: flirtation with married colleagues, online pornography, excessive emotional dependence. Ecclesiastes tells you today: true wisdom is to flee, not to maneuver.
Note: This verse cannot be read as "all women are snares." The Preacher warns against specific evil (the adulteress), not women as a whole. Proverbs 31 immediately praises the "virtuous woman." Wisdom literature is dialectical regarding women, warning against evil while praising good.
7:27-28 "“Behold, I have found this,” says the Preacher, “to one another, to find out the scheme; which my soul still seeks; but I have not found. I have found one man among a thousand; but I have not found a woman among all those."
Ecclesiastes 7:27-28（World English Bible）
The most profound lament: "I have found one man among a thousand; but I have not found a woman among all these."
This verse is a thorny issue in feminist exegesis; readers can easily interpret it as "the Preacher discriminates against women." This interpretation needs careful consideration.
Possible interpretations:
Pastoral interpretive stance: Do not use 7:27-28 as a theological statement to demean women. This is the Preacher's lament in his specific situation. The entire Bible contains many God-fearing women: Sarah, Deborah, Ruth, Hannah, Mary, Mary, Martha, Mary Magdalene, Priscilla, Lois, Eunice. The Preacher not finding them does not mean they did not exist.
7:29 "Behold, I have only found this: that God made man upright; but they search for many schemes.”"
Ecclesiastes 7:29（World English Bible）
The diagnosis of the entire chapter concludes. The Preacher ends the chapter with the one thing he is certain he found: the diagnosis of human depravity.
Hebrew: lebad re'eh-zeh matsati asher asah ha'Elohim et-ha'adam yashar v'hemmah biqshu chish'vonot rabbim (Only this one thing I found, that God made humanity upright, but they sought out many schemes).
"Upright" (yashar, straight): God made humanity originally straight. This echoes Genesis 1:27, "God created humanity in his own image"; humanity was originally good.
"Schemes" (chish'vonot rabbim, many calculations, inventions): chishbon means "calculation, design, cunning." Humanity itself sought out many distortions. This is the wisdom literature version of the Fall in Genesis 3. God made straight, humanity sought crooked.
New Testament echoes:
Application: After reading Ecclesiastes 7:29 today, every reader must acknowledge two things: 1. You were created good, straight, in God's image; this gives you the root of your dignity. 2. But you have made yourself crooked; this gives you the need for a Savior.
The posture of true Gospel: It is neither "I am essentially terrible, worthless" (an over-pessimistic version of some post-Augustinian theology) nor "I was pretty good, just made occasional mistakes" (a modern humanistic evasion). The correct posture is to acknowledge: I was originally good, now I am crooked, and I need a Savior to make me straight again. This is what Christ does in 2 Corinthians 5:17, "Therefore if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old things have passed away. Behold, all things have become new." He makes the crooked straight again.
| Paragraph | Object of Examination | Core Conclusion | Connection to the Book's Arc |
|---|---|---|---|
| 7:1-12 "Better than" ten sayings | Counter-intuitive proverbs of the wise | The day of death is better than the day of birth; sorrow is better than laughter; the end is better than the beginning; wisdom is better than an inheritance | Uses proverbial style to speak counter-proverbs; the wise prepare for death |
| 7:13-14 God's dual arrangement | Prosperity and adversity | God places prosperity and adversity side by side, so that people cannot fathom the future | Connects to 3:1-8 "For everything there is a season" |
| 7:15-22 Limits of wisdom | Do not be overly righteous/wicked | Those who fear God are between the two extremes | Echoes 9:2-3 "The same event happens to the righteous and to the wicked" |
| 7:23-29 A righteous person hard to find among a thousand | The fall of all humanity | God made humanity upright, but they have sought out many schemes | Old Testament root of Romans 3:10-12 + Romans 1:21 |
The arc of the entire chapter moves from counter-intuitive wisdom in proverbial style → meditation on death → limits of wisdom → diagnosis of human depravity. The opening wisdom proverbs seem straightforward, but the conclusion points to the pessimistic conclusion that there is no righteous person among all humanity, yet this pessimism is precisely the opening for the gospel.
| Vocabulary | Original | Transliteration | Verse(s) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reputation/Name | שֵׁם | shem | 7:1 | Name/reputation/legacy left behind |
| Ointment | שֶׁמֶן | shemen | 7:1 | Perfume/olive oil (rhymes and puns with shem) |
| Day of death | יוֹם הַמָּוֶת | yom hammavet | 7:1 | Day of death |
| House of mourning | בֵּית-אֵבֶל | beit-evel | 7:2 | House of weeping |
| House of feasting | בֵּית מִשְׁתֶּה | beit mishteh | 7:2 | House of drinking/feasting |
| End/End of all people | סוֹף כָּל-הָאָדָם | sof kol-ha'adam | 7:2 | The end of all people |
| Sorrow/Anger | כַּעַס | ka'as | 7:3, 9 | Sadness/irritation |
| Laughter/Mockery | שְׂחוֹק | sechok | 7:3, 6 | Laughter (also includes frivolity, mockery) |
| Make the heart better | יִיטַב לֵב | yitav lev | 7:3 | Heart is improved |
| Wise person | חָכָם | chakham | 7:4, 5, 7 | Person with wisdom |
| Foolish person | כְּסִיל | kesil | 7:4, 5, 6, 9 | Stubborn person |
| Rebuke | גַּעֲרָה | ge'arah | 7:5 | Rebuke/admonition of a wise person |
| Thorns | סִיר | sir | 7:6 | Thorns (pun, pot sir) |
| Extortion/Oppression | עֹשֶׁק | oshek | 7:7 | Exorbitant taxes/oppression |
| Bribe | מַתָּנָה | mattanah | 7:7 | Gift/bribe |
| End | אַחֲרִית | acharit | 7:8 | End/outcome |
| Patience | אֶרֶךְ רוּחַ | erekh ruach | 7:8 | Long spirit (not impatient) |
| Pride | גְּבַהּ-רוּחַ | gevah-ruach | 7:8 | High spirit (self-exaltation) |
| Benefit | יוֹתֵר | yoter | 7:11, 12 | More/more beneficial |
| Wisdom preserves life | תְּחַיֶּה | techayyeh | 7:12 | Makes alive (wisdom makes a person truly live) |
| God | אֱלֹהִים | Elohim | 7:13, 14, 18, 26, 29 | God (key word 40 times in Ecclesiastes) |
| Crooked | מְעֻוָּת | me'uvvat | 7:13 | Crooked (echoes 1:15) |
| Day of prosperity | יוֹם טוֹבָה | yom tovah | 7:14 | Good day |
| Day of adversity | יוֹם רָעָה | yom ra'ah | 7:14 | Hard day/day of disaster |
| Consider | רְאֵה | re'eh | 7:14 | See/observe (in hard days, one must see God's lesson) |
| Righteous person | צַדִּיק | tsaddiq | 7:15, 16, 20 | Righteous person |
| Be overly wise | תִּתְחַכַּם | tithakkam | 7:16 | Make oneself wise (Hithpael reflexive form) |
| Bring ruin upon oneself | תִּשּׁוֹמֵם | tishshomem | 7:16 | Make oneself desolate |
| Die before your time | בְּלֹא עִתֶּךָ | belo itekha | 7:17 | Outside your time (echoes 3:1, "For everything there is a season") |
| Fear God | יְרֵא אֱלֹהִים | yere Elohim | 7:18 | Fear God (5 times in Ecclesiastes: 3:14, 5:7, 7:18, 8:12-13, 12:13) |
| Upright | יָשָׁר | yashar | 7:29 | Straight (God made humans originally straight) |
| Schemes | חִשְּׁבֹנוֹת | chish'vonot | 7:29 | Calculations/inventions (human-made distortions) |
| Snares | מְצוֹדִים | metsodim | 7:26 | Traps/snares (of the adulteress) |
| Chains | חֲרָמִים | charamim | 7:26 | Fishing nets/chains |
| One thousand | אֶלֶף | elef | 7:28 | Thousand (the Preacher's sample size for examination) |
(See the structure diagram in Chapter Guide / Paragraph Structure.)
The Hebrew tov A min B (A is better than B) is a standard structure in proverbial literature. This chapter uses this structure ten times:
Each "better than" implicitly points to death or the end, making the proverbial maxims point to anti-proverbial truths. This is a typical example of the Preacher using form to speak against form.
A classic example of Egyptian wisdom literature, with parallel passages to Proverbs 22:17-24:22. Chapter 7, "Do not be impatient," corresponds to Ecclesiastes 7:9, "Do not be quickly vexed in your spirit." Chapter 16's advice on "limited righteousness" also has a maxim similar to Ecclesiastes 7:16: "Do not be excessive, lest you suffer harm."
However, there is a fundamental difference: the goal of Egyptian wisdom is social survival (to live long in the Pharaoh's court); the goal of Ecclesiastes' wisdom is the fear of God (7:18). The former is based on practicality, the latter on a relationship with the Creator.
The master lists various life choices, and the slave can find reasons to defend each, as well as reasons to oppose each. Conclusion: All life choices are relative, ultimately leading to suicide.
In dialogue with Ecclesiastes chapter 7, the Preacher also acknowledges that various "better than" statements are relative, but he does not turn to suicide; instead, he turns to fearing God (7:18) and acknowledging the Fall (7:29).
A Babylonian philosophical poem from around 1000 BC, where a sufferer debates the topic of "the righteous suffering" with a friend. Conclusion: The will of the gods cannot be fathomed by humans; one can only submit.
This corresponds perfectly with Ecclesiastes 7:15, "There are righteous people who perish in their righteousness, and there are wicked people who live long in their wickedness," but Ecclesiastes goes deeper: this is a "crooked" thing (7:13) that God allows in His sovereignty, which humans cannot straighten, but can only fear God within it.
Epicurean philosophy's middle-way theory, neither extreme pursuit of pleasure nor extreme asceticism, appears superficially similar to Ecclesiastes 7:16-18's "Don't be overly righteous, neither be overly wise... Don't be overly wicked, neither be foolish."
However, the fundamental difference is that Epicurus's middle way is rooted in rational balance and avoiding pain; the middle way of Ecclesiastes is rooted in fearing God. The former calculates wisdom based on humanity, while the latter fears wisdom based on God.
| Verse | Content | Context |
|---|---|---|
| 3:14 | "God has done it, that men should fear before him." | There is a time for every purpose |
| 5:7 | "You shall fear God." | Instruction on temple worship |
| 7:18 | "He who fears God will come out of them all." | The middle way between being overly righteous/wicked |
| 8:12-13 | "It shall be well with those who fear God" | Sovereignty and death |
| 12:13 | "Fear God, and keep his commandments; for this is the whole duty of man." | Conclusion of the whole book |
Ecclesiastes 7:18 is the only explicit and specific application among these five instances; in the midst of the two extremes of ethical choices, fearing God is the way out. This corresponds to the two aspects of the New Testament: justification by grace alone and sanctification by the Holy Spirit, opposing both justification by law (being overly righteous) and indulgence in fleshly desires (being overly wicked).
| Verse | Content |
|---|---|
| 3:17 | "God will judge the righteous and the wicked" |
| 7:15 | "There are righteous people who perish in their righteousness" |
| 7:20 | "For there is no righteous man on earth, who does good and doesn't sin." |
| 8:14 | "There are righteous men to whom it happens according to the work of the wicked" |
| 9:1-2 | "The righteous, and the wise, and their works, are in the hand of God; whether it is love or hatred, man doesn't know it all. All things are the same to all." |
Ecclesiastes' attitude toward the "righteous" is dialectical: it affirms the existence of the righteous and God's judgment, yet acknowledges that under the sun, the righteous do not always prosper, and fundamentally, there are no perfectly righteous people (7:20). This dialectic paves the way for the New Testament's "Jesus is the only truly righteous one" + "those who believe in Him are counted as righteous."
| Verse | Content |
|---|---|
| 1:15 | "That which is crooked can't be made straight" |
| 7:13 | "Consider the work of God, for who can make that straight, which he has made crooked?" |
| 7:29 | "God made man upright; but they have sought out many inventions." |
| 12:9 | "The Preacher... sought to find out acceptable words, and that which was written was upright, even words of truth." |
Ecclesiastes uses "straight" and "crooked" as key terms for diagnosing human nature: God made straight (creation), humans sought crookedness (the Fall), and the Preacher wrote truth with straight words (revelation).
| Old Testament Verse | New Testament Echo | Related Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Ecclesiastes 7:1-2 The day of death is better than the day of one's birth / house of mourning | Hebrews 9:27 + 2 Corinthians 5:10 | It is appointed for men to die once, and after this, judgment; we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ |
| Ecclesiastes 7:3 Sorrow is better than laughter / makes the heart better | Romans 5:3-5 | Suffering produces endurance, endurance produces character, and character produces hope |
| Ecclesiastes 7:5 Hear the rebuke of the wise | Hebrews 12:5-11 | The Lord disciplines those whom he loves |
| Ecclesiastes 7:8 The end of a thing is better than its beginning / patience is better than pride | Hebrews 12:1-2 + James 5:11 | Let us run with patience the race that is set before us; he who endures to the end will be saved |
| Ecclesiastes 7:9 Don't be hasty in your spirit to be angry | James 1:19-20 | Be quick to hear, slow to speak, slow to anger |
| Ecclesiastes 7:14 Consider in the day of adversity | Romans 5:3-5 + 2 Corinthians 4:17 | Our light affliction, which is for an moment, works for us an exceeding and eternal weight of glory |
| Ecclesiastes 7:16 Don't be overly righteous (self-righteousness) | Matthew 23 + Luke 18:9-14 + Galatians 3:11 | Warning to the Pharisees / The prayer of the self-righteous Pharisee / All who rely on the works of the law are under a curse |
| Ecclesiastes 7:17 Don't be overly wicked (licentiousness) | Romans 6:1-2 + Galatians 5:13 | Shall we continue in sin, that grace may abound? By no means! + Don't use your freedom for an occasion for the flesh |
| Ecclesiastes 7:18 He who fears God will come out of them all | Matthew 10:28 + Romans 11:20 | Rather fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in Gehenna; don't be arrogant, but be afraid |
| Ecclesiastes 7:20 There is no righteous man on earth | Romans 3:10-12 direct quote | There is none righteous, no, not one... There is none who does good, no, not one |
| Ecclesiastes 7:21-22 Don't take to heart every word that people say | 1 Corinthians 4:3-5 | It is a very small thing that I should be judged by you, or by man's judgment |
| Ecclesiastes 7:26 The snare of the immoral woman | 1 Corinthians 6:18 + Proverbs 5-7 | Flee sexual immorality |
| Ecclesiastes 7:29 God made man upright, but they have sought out many inventions | Romans 1:21-23 + Genesis 3 | Although they knew God, they didn't glorify him as God... they exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man |
| Ecclesiastes 7:29 God made man upright | 2 Corinthians 5:17 | Therefore if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; the crooked becomes straight again |
Key Points:
Ecclesiastes 7:20 → Romans 3:10-12 is a direct quote, one of the most direct citations of Ecclesiastes in the New Testament. Paul combines Ecclesiastes 7:20 + Psalms 14, 53 + Isaiah 59 to package the entire Old Testament's diagnosis of human nature as "There is none righteous, no, not one." This is an indispensable root of the gospel of justification by faith.
Ecclesiastes 7:29 → Romans 1:21-23. Paul's diagnosis in Romans chapter 1, "although they knew God, they became futile," is an elaboration of Ecclesiastes 7:29, "God made man upright; but they have sought out many inventions." Together, these two verses constitute the core New Testament declaration of humanity's Fall.
Ecclesiastes 7:18 → Matthew 10:28. Jesus' statement, "Rather fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in Gehenna," is the strongest New Testament expression of "fearing God" in Ecclesiastes 7:18. Fear here is not terror, but a sober awareness of the Lord of final judgment.
Ecclesiastes 7 is the Preacher's examination of wisdom literature itself. He borrows the proverb form (ten "better than" statements) but uses this form to point to death and limits. This is a very self-reflexive stance: the wise man uses the form of wisdom to expose the limitations of wisdom.
The position of this chapter is strategic within the arc of Ecclesiastes 12 chapters:
Position of Chapter 7: It is a bridge from the "diagnosis of vanity" (1-6) to the "direct confrontation with death" (8-12). It uses the most familiar form of wisdom literature (the proverb form) to lead readers to the problems that wisdom literature cannot solve (death, sin).
This chapter is also one of the best starting points for gospel dialogue. If you are conversing with a cultured person, a middle-class Christian or seeker who respects wisdom and appreciates philosophy, Ecclesiastes 7 gives you a dual fulcrum:
This chapter is the wise person's entry point to the gospel. It is not about evangelizing with anti-intellectualism, but about evangelizing with the limits of true wisdom.
Authoritative Commentaries
Further Reading
Chinese Resources
| Theme | Content |
|---|---|
| Pay attention to the end | The day of death is better than the day of birth; the end of a matter is better than its beginning. The wise prepare for death, while fools avoid the end. |
| The spiritual value of sorrow | Sorrow is better than laughter; affliction refines the soul, while laughter may numb the soul. Romans 5:3-5 says that affliction produces endurance. |
| God's dual arrangement | In the day of prosperity be joyful, and in the day of adversity consider. God has set the one over against the other, so that people cannot find out anything that will be after him. |
| The limits of wisdom | Wisdom is good but limited; one sees the righteous die young and the wicked live long. Even the wise cannot find a perfectly righteous person. |
| The middle way of reverence | 7:18 "He who fears God will come forth from them all." This means not relying on accumulating laws to become righteous, nor indulging and falling into ruin. |
| The diagnosis of no righteous people | 7:20 is the Old Testament root of Romans 3:10-12, which Paul directly adapted. |
| The wisdom literature version of human depravity | 7:29 "God made mankind upright, but they have sought out many schemes." This is the wisdom literature response to Genesis chapter 3. |